THE ANCIENT SCIENCE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE CALLED STHAPATYA KALAA

THE ANCIENT HINDU SCIENCE OF TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE CALLED STHAPATYA KALAA

(Compilation for  the Kumbhabhishekam Ceremony Souvenir of Sri Ganesha Temple, Nashville by N. R. Srinivasan, June 2018)

The Science of Architecture and Civil Construction was known in Ancient India as Sthapatya-Shastra. The word Sthapatya is derived from the root word Sthapana i.e. ‘to establish’. The technique of architecture was both a science and an art, hence it is also known as Sthapatya-kalaa; the word Kalaa means an art.

From very early times the construction of temples, palaces, rest houses and other civil constructions were undertaken by professional architects known as Sthapati. Even during the Vedic times, there existed professionals who specialized in the technique of constructing chariots and other heavy instruments of war. These professionals have been referred to in the Rig Veda as Rathakara which literally means ‘chariot maker’.

The excavations of the ruins at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (today in Pakistan) proved the existence of a developed urban civilization in India. The Indus valley civilization is dated around 3000 B.C.

Thus since the last 5000 years, India has had an urban civilization. The existence of an urban civilization presumes the existence of well-developed techniques of architecture and construction.

These techniques would no doubt have had been systematically stated in record books for transmitting them to the later generations as well for being used as reference media for actual construction. Unfortunately, as far as the Indus Valley civilization goes no such records have been traced so for either as rock edicts, manuscripts, etc., or in folk tales and legends.

But the fact that cities on the scale of Mohenjo-Daro had been constructed bear testimony to the existence of a systematized and highly developed technique of architecture 5000 years ago.

In the later ages, from about the 7th century B.C., we have both literature references as well as archaeological evidences to prove the existence of large urban civilizations in the Ganges Valley. Like in most other sciences, even remotely connected with religion, in architecture also the scientific ideas and techniques have been integrated with philosophy and theology. This was so as the majority of the large constructions were temples.

As the construction of Hindu temples rarely used mortar but used a technique where the stones could be affixed to one another with the force of gravity. The technique followed in doing this was similar to the one used in the Roman Aqueducts. The exquisite carvings were engraved after the stones had been fixed in their places. Thus the carving of figurines right up to the top of a temples roof must have been a demanding task.

Such carvings are especially seen in the Gopurams i.e. roofs over the south Indian temples and on the tall doorways to the temples. The Raj-Gopurams or main roofs of such temples rise to a height of nearly 90 to 100 ft. and are fully carved with various figurines depicting gods and goddesses from the Hindu pantheon.

Generally a rectangular site is chosen for a temple to be located on the outskirts of the city. After testing and leveling of the site, the plan is prepared by drawing the Vaastu-purusha Mandala. This refers to visualizing the site in a square and dividing it into sixty-four or eighty one parts. Each part is then identified with various deities representing the different functioning aspects of creation. Based on this Vaastu-purusha Mandala, the locations of the different components of the temple are determined. A rough sketch of the Vaastu-purusha shows the location of the sanctum in the heart region presided over by Brahma along with the temple layout showing some of its main components.

Before beginning the temple construction, the site is purified with a ritual called Bhu-suddhi, sanctifying the earth. A fire ritual, Vaastu Pooja, is done to please the deities of the Vaastu-purusha mandala and to obtain their permission to use the site for temple building. Then, another rite known as Garbhanyaasa or Garbhaadaana is performed. In this ritual, a copper pot filled with precious stones, herbs, metals and soils from holy places is lowered into a hole dug at the center of the Mandala, to be presided over Brahma. It is at this point that the deity will be installed later. The hole is then covered with Aadhaara-sila, a stone slab. The inner sanctum, Garbha Griha, which houses the idol, is the most important part of the temple. Over the centuries the architectural details of the sanctum have been strictly adhered to as per the Vaastu texts, while the sculptural embellishments of the rest of the temple complex kept changing with the changing society.

The Vaastu texts prescribe that the sanctum must be constructed before the other parts of the temple are built.  The tower that rises directly above the sanctum is known as ‘Sikhara’ or ‘Vimaana’. The height of the Vimaana is always proportionate to the height of the sanctum. The Vimaana has generally four sides and rises in tiers of diminishing square area. Six and eight-sided Vimaanas are also seen in some temples. At the apex of Vimaana is a Kalasa, a copper or gold pot. Around the sanctum is a narrow path for circum-ambulation known as ‘Pradakshina-patha’. The rectangular porch in front of the sanctum is known as ‘Mukha mandapam’. The devotees offer their prayers here and   observe the rituals performed by the priests in the inner sanctum. On the outer edge of this hall is another large hall known as ‘Mahaa mandapam’ that accommodates larger gatherings. The four walls around the temple, sometimes sculpted, are called ‘Praakaara’, enclosure. The praakaaras cover the pillared halls as well as smaller shrines housing the other deities.

An important component leading magnificence to the temple structure is the ‘Gopuram’, the gateway tower. This is an exquisitely carved gigantic structure, sometimes reaching a height of more than two hundred feet. As one enters the temple through the tower, a ‘Balipeetha’, a seat for giving offerings to the deities is seen. Another important element is the ‘Dwajasthambha’ flag-post, located between the Bali-peetha and sanctum, rising to fifty to eighty feet in height. Its direction indicates the position of the altar.   On religious festivals, a flag hoisted at the temples signifies a resolve taken by the community for collective worship during that period. The flag-post   signifies the ‘sankalpa sakti’, power of resolve, of the community. Orthodox people end their saashtaanga pranaama, lying flat on earth with eight (males)  or five parts (Females) of the body touching the Mother Earth, at the flag-post  and do only aatma-pradakshina (Self circumambulation) within the Vaastu-mandala area guarded all around by deities in order not to show disrespect by pointing their feet to any deity within the sanctified charged atmosphere.

Once the majestic temple is built, the Lord is installed in the sanctum on an auspicious day with an elaborate ritual known as ‘Praana pratishta’ and ‘Kumbhabhishekam’. These ceremonies signify the consummation of the temple building endeavor and people congregate in large numbers to witness this sacred event.

A temple is looked upon as the abode of the Lord. The method of temple worship, while more elaborate, is essentially similar to the pooja done at home. There are certain religious texts called Aagamas, which are the authority with regard to the different aspects of temple worship. There are three main Aagamas connected with the worship to Siva, Vishnu and Sakti. They describe in elaborate detail the selection of the site of the temple, temple construction, making of idols, installation of the deity and the consecration of the idols. They also describe the methods of worship, prayers and mantras associated with the temple worship and the monthly and yearly   celebrations for a given temple.

Temple architecture is based on symbolism. The structure as a whole represents the entire creation viewed as the whole form of Lord. The Lord enshrined in the sanctum is the intelligent cause of creation.  The various structural components of the temple symbolize various limbs of the Lord as the material cause of the creation.  Vaastu Saastra such as Silparatnam and Aparajit priccha present the entire temple as the physical body of the deity for whom the temple is built. Vaastu texts visualize the sanctum as the head of the Lord; the tower above the sanctum as the braid of His hair; the Mandapams, the pavilions as His hands; and the gateway tower as his feet. Agnipuraana, however, identifies the inner sanctum alone with the body of the Lord. Another beautiful imagery given by the tradition suggests that the temple be looked upon as one’s own physical body and the Lord in the inner sanctum as one’s Self. A prayer hymn describes the imagery as follows: “Deho devaalayah prokto jeevo devassanaatanah”, the human body is said to be the temple and the individual Self, the eternal Lord.

Thus, the human body is viewed as temple, housing the Lord within. The temple structure and mode of worship also symbolize the discovery of the truth in a person’s journey through life. The entrance tower with innumerable sculptures of deities, kings, celestial beings, dancers and animals represent this manifold Universe. Slopping into the temple through the entrance signifies one’s readiness for the journey having already gone through the experience of the world. After entering the first gate one comes to Balipeetha, an altar where offerings are made to the deities. Here the devotee prostrates, signifying surrender to the Lord.  The temple structure and mode of worship symbolize the discovery of truth in a person’s journey through life.

As one proceeds further into the temple it becomes progressively darker. Approaching the sanctum, one finds an idol made of black stone in darkness in   South Indian Temples. An oil lamp barely reveals the outline of form of Lord with his glittering ornaments. The darkness symbolizes one’s ignorance about the Lord. The shining ornaments representing the glories of the manifest world reveal His presence. To have a Darsan, a complete and clear vision of the Lord, one requires more light. When the priest burns a lump of camphor at the time of the Aarati one sees the Lord clearly in the new light. What was vague impression of the Lord is now a compelling vision. Similarly in life, the seeker comes to discover the truth when the Guru throws light and unfolds the words of the scriptures to reveal the truth. 

The Hindu Temple has the square as its essential form.  The Square is the fundamental symbolism of Vedic Sacrificial altar or Yajnakunda. The   Vaastu-mandala enumerates a progressive series of squares 64 and 81. The Vaastumandala, the square diagram of existence, measurable in space is the metaphysical and cosmological plan of the temple and the temple’s cosmological and mystical implications are believed to be derived from it. The imaging of the cosmos is achieved by the presence of planets, the stars, the guardians of the directions (32 divinities) who are accommodated on the border or perimeter of the Vaastumandala, with various  other deities subsidiary to the main deity of the temples who occupies the  center (the shrine) or the Brahmasthana. 

Vaastu was the place of the adjustments of solar and lunar cycles for the placement of deities according to Brihat Samhita. The 32 paada-devatas (deities) in the square borders include in the regents of the four quarters (cardinal points called disa) and the 28 nakshatras (stars).  The black square in the center Brahmasthana is the place for the main deity. Here it is   for Brahma as originally conceived, the creative aspect of Brahman as Brahma the creator. Later based on Puranas this place is for the main deity Siva or Vishnu or their derivatives,   Parmpara or Avatars. In the Puranic tradition this position is assigned to major Hindu Gods, Vishnu and Siva while Brahma becomes subordinated and is found in the niche on the northern wall of the Garbhagriha although the concept of Trinity in worship continues. Both these deities are the Universal Brahman in their respective system of belief and worship. The other Vedic deities remain in their subordinate position as paada-devatas in the Perimeter of the Vaastumandala. 

The 32 devatas known as paada-devatas,   representing the gods of the Vedic pantheon are assigned a subsidiary position in the mandala as regents of the   nakshtras (stars) stationed on the border and led by the dikplakas (warders) of the four regions of space—Indra on the East, Yama on the South,   Varuna on the West, and Soma on the North and dikpalakas (guardians) of the cardinals and intermediate directions to constitute ashta (eight) dikpalakas. The eight dikpalakas are Indra, Agni, Yama, Nirruti, Varuna, Marut, Kubera, and Isana. In the Vastu texts, the Yantra symbolizing cosmic order is the place of manifestation of the Vastupurusha, whose various organs are equated with or presented in the form of the main deity in the center and the other gods in the periphery. Its superstructure is the Temple.

The Vastumandala is a prognostication or the program for the building of a temple. The Vastu-purusha-mandala--the temple diagram and the meta-physical plan is thus the intellectual foundation of the building and its projection on the Earth. This does not imply an identity of the actual plan of the temple with mandalas. The mandala is a prototype of the infinitely varied temple plans and the wide variety of designs in making the temple. Thus it has immense leverage in the process of actual planning, designing and elaboration.

The drawing of the square by a sthapani (mason) based on a ritual is a pre-requisite to the making of the temple which has become a general practice for all constructions in Hindu tradition. Every movement in the drawing and execution of the plan is treated as a religious Rite under the guidance of knowledgeable spiritual architect and designer called Sthapani.

The making of the Hindu Temple from the planning of the site to the designing and execution of its shape, elevation, carvings and icon-graphic program, installation of deities as well as later any repair work to be carried out is ritualized and its sanctity underlined, advised and supervised by a sthapani who is in turn honored by the temple. The ritual process includes the act of giving stability to the site, purification (sthala suddhi), insemination, the act of seeding and their germination to signify the birth of a holy site and levelling of the site; the drawing of the mandala marks the beginning of the construction. In the various phases of the construction and consecration of the temple, the rite of the seeds and their germination (Palika sthaapana) called ankuraarapana is the most important and precedes the building of the temple, and is observed again before the last brick is laid in the superstructure, and also prior to the installation of the main image and before the rite of opening the eye of the image and finally before the consecration of sacrificial vessels. The final installation is the Kalasa or the urn. When the temple is completed and consecrated, its effigy in the shape of a golden man called Praasaada-purusha is installed in a golden jar (Svrana Kumbha) above the Garbhagriha (Sanctum sanctorum), the shrine in which the deity is enshrined. After construction the dvajasthambha is erected with a large flag fixed at the top or the flag fixed on the temple top itself.

It appears, the Kalasa, the pot, has an important hidden component, the golden person (suvarna purusha) who is regarded the personification of the temple-spirit. The belly of the Kalasa contains a tiny cot made of silver, copper or sandal wood over which is laid a soft feather mattress. A tiny golden icon holding a lotus flower and a triple flag rests on that cot. Four tiny pots made of gold, silver or copper containing consecrated water are placed on the four sides of the cot. There is also a tiny pot of ghee near the cot. This entire procedure of introducing the “golden-person “into the Kalasa is known as hrudaya-varnaka-vidhi.

Another Kalasa is deposited under the sanctum. And, like the one on top of the Vimana, this Kalasa also contains tokens of growth and prosperity, viz., cereals with subtle seeds (such as millet) and nine types of precious stones. The womb, the icon and the sthupi the finial run along the same axis.

Interestingly, the Kalasa placed on top of the Vimana, it is said, is not embedded into the structure by packing it with mortar or cement. It is, in fact, placed in position by a hollow rod that juts out of the center of the tower and runs through the vase, the Kalasa. It is through this tube that the   lanchana ‘tokens’ (cereals and precious stones) are introduced. One of the explanations is the hallow tube represents the central channel of energy the Shushumna Nadi that connects to the Sahasrara, the seat of consciousness, through the Brahma-randra. This completes the analogy of the temple to the Purusha to the human form.

While Vimanam with Kalasam on the top of the Garbhagriha is an essential feature of a Hindu Temple.  Rajagopuram at the main entrance is a later addition and is a special beauty and attraction in a South Indian temple particularly in Tamil Nadu. The later Agama texts mention that each enclosure must have door-ways in all four directions. But, very few temples followed this rule, perhaps with the exception of the great temple at Tiruvannamalai. In most cases, the doorways lead from one courtyard to the next, finally leading to the sanctum. And, it became customary, since 10^th century, to erect towers (Gopurams) over such gateways, though a Gopuram was not an essential feature of the temple per se. It is needless to mention that the Prakara contributes to the security and beauty of the temple. With the growth and development of the temples, the structures and details of the Prakara-s and Gopuram became increasingly elaborate and complicated. The main entrance, somehow, popularly came to be known as Raja-Gopuram.

In typical South Indian temple tradition it is customary to go round the circumambulation path before  the outermost enclosure (Prakara) that carries the Rajagopuram and sit at the northern wall  Mandapam for a while and gaze at the Kalasa over the  Vimana  of the Garbhagriha and pay respect to the Akasha element and then  finally leave the temple. There is an interesting belief that the step - and it is mostly a broad one - under the Rajagopuram, is a place where liberated souls of devotees reside, to be blessed by the feet of those devotees (Bhaktas) going in for worship. Some devotees avoid stepping on such great souls and   normally jump over the step. Instead they touch this broad step I in reverence   to honor   those residing liberated souls!  

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It is said in the older texts that the concept of Gopuram originated from extensive cow-stalls (Go-griha) which was virtually a gate-house at the doorways of a huge building, monastery, temple or even a town (Pura-dvaram tu gopuram; Dvara-matre tu gopuram). The Gopuram, therefore, technically, denoted gate-houses of palaces, cities and residential buildings of various descriptions; and that they did not necessarily belong to temples alone.

By about the tenth century, the temples is South India came to be surrounded (perhaps as a defense-measure) with high walls (Prakara) with one main and three subsidiary gates, opening in the cardinal directions. A Gopuram (high tower) adorned these gateways. And in due course the Gopuram became a characteristic feature of South Indian temple architecture. Many major temples have a series of enclosures (Prakara). For instance; the Srirangam temple has seven enclosing walls, enveloping the whole township; and, the entrance to each Prakara is adorned with a Gopuram.

There is mention of Gopurams with sixteen storeys, divided into ten classes. But the details of only five storeys are given; others being left to the discretion of the architects.

The temple worship borrowed a number of procedures from the Tantric School and fused it with the Vedic mantras. Offering of food at the Balipeetha, usually red colored rice, to the subsidiary-deities around Vaastu Mandala, natural elements and to the baser spirits and elements in order to appease them is a Tantric practice. Those rituals as carried out in the Vaishnava or the Saiva temples are symbolic and a mere shadow of the tantric practices.

But when it comes to the Sakti temples, especially those on the Eastern and North Eastern parts of India, the ritual is really serious and elaborate, expanded into Pancha Bali (five kinds of animal sacrifices). The Sakta Tantra is in full flow even today; there are no euphemisms here.

But, the traditional view according to ancient texts on Shilpa-sastra, the most important part of a temple, it’s very heart as it were, is the Garbhagriha or the sanctum sanctorum, the cave-like cube-shaped “womb room,” located within the Brahmasthana of the Vastu Purusha Mandala. Sometimes the Garbagriha with its Vimana alone is defined as temple per se. But, generally, it is extended by an Ardha-Mandapa, a Mandapa or a large hall up to the Bali-peetha.

All these    suggest that the Raja-Gopuram is not an essential part of the temple; and its structure is left to the discretion of the architect.

People visit temple not only for worship but to get positively charged  to lead a healthy life. Garbhagriha is where earth’s magnetic waves are found to be maximum. We know that there are some copper plates, inscribed with Vedic scripts, buried beneath the presiding  deity during consecration ceremony. What are they really?  The copper plate absorbs earth’s magnetic waves and radiates it to the surroundings. Thus a person regularly visiting a temple and walking clockwise around the Main Idol receives the beamed magnetic waves and his body is charged and he is positively charged.  This is a very slow process and a regular visit will let him absorb more of this positive energy.  Scientifically, it is the positive energy that we all require to have a healthy life.

The authors from whom I have compiled these details have deliberately stepped out of three areas: the astrological significance; the religious rites at almost every stage of construction and the periodic ones; and the exhaustive list of omens – good and bad, and the beliefs. It is all a jungle and much of it is rather difficult to explain rationally.

[This compilation is based on suitably extracting, abridging and editing information contained in: 1) Sthapatya Kala: The Ancient Indian Science of Architecture posted by Sudheer, IndiaDivine.Org; 2) Champakalakshmi Usha Kris, The Hindu Temple Traditions, Roli Books; 3) H.H. Chandrasekharendra Sarasawati, Aspects of Our Religion, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan; 4) S. Sreenivasa Rao, Some Essential Aspects of Temple Structure;   5) Discourses on Hindu Temples by N. R. Srinivasan, <nrsrini.blogspot.com> Hindu Reflections which are gratefully acknowledged]